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While several studies have investigated winter-time air pollution with awide range of concentration levels, hardly any results are available forlonger time periods covering several winter-smog episodes at variouslocations; e.g., often only a few weeks from a single winter areinvestigated. Here, we present source apportionment results of winter-smogepisodes from 16 air pollution monitoring stations across Switzerland fromfive consecutive winters. Radiocarbon (14C) analyses of the elemental (EC)and organic (OC) carbon fractions, as well as levoglucosan, majorwater-soluble ionic species and gas-phase pollutant measurements were usedto characterize the different sources of PM10. The most importantcontributions to PM10 during winter-smog episodes in Switzerland wereon average the secondary inorganic constituents (sum of nitrate, sulfate andammonium = 41 ± 15%) followed by organic matter (OM) (34 ± 13%)and EC (5 ± 2%). The non-fossil fractions of OC(fNF,OC) ranged on average from 69 to 85 and 80 to 95% for stationsnorth and south of the Alps, respectively, showing that traffic contributeson average only up to ~ 30% to OC. The non-fossil fractionof EC (fNF,EC), entirely attributable to primary wood burning, was onaverage 42 ± 13 and 49 ± 15% for north and south of theAlps, respectively. While a high correlation was observed between fossil ECand nitrogen oxides, both primarily emitted by traffic, these species didnot significantly correlate with fossil OC (OCF), which seems tosuggest that a considerable amount of OCF is secondary, from fossilprecursors. Elevated fNF,EC and fNF,OC values and the highcorrelation of the latter with other wood burning markers, includinglevoglucosan and water soluble potassium (K+) indicate that residentialwood burning is the major source of carbonaceous aerosols during winter-smogepisodes in Switzerland. The inspection of the non-fossil OC and EC levelsand the relation with levoglucosan and water-soluble K+ shows differentratios for stations north and south of the Alps (most likely because ofdifferences in burning technologies) for these two regions in Switzerland

atmospheric chemistry and physics

Radiocarbon analysis of elemental and organic carbon in Switzerland during winter-smog episodes from 2008 to 2012 – Part 1: Source apportionment and spatial variability