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Atmospheric sulfur deposition above certain limits can represent a threat totropical forests, causing nutrient imbalances and mobilizing toxic elementsthat impact biodiversity and forest productivity. Atmospheric sources ofsulfur deposited by precipitation have been roughly identified in only a fewlowland tropical forests. Even scarcer are studies of this type in tropicalmountain forests, many of them mega-diversity hotspots and especiallyvulnerable to acidic deposition. In these places, the topographic complexity andrelated streamflow conditions affect the origin, type, and intensity ofdeposition. Furthermore, in regions with a variety of natural andanthropogenic sulfur sources, like active volcanoes and biomass burning, nosource emission data has been used for determining the contribution of eachsource to the deposition. The main goal of the current study is to evaluatesulfate (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>-</sup> deposition by rain and occult precipitation at twotopographic locations in a tropical mountain forest of southern Ecuador, andto trace back the deposition to possible emission sources applying back-trajectory modeling. To link upwind natural (volcanic) and anthropogenic(urban/industrial and biomass-burning) sulfur emissions and observed sulfatedeposition, we employed state-of-the-art inventory and satellite data,including volcanic passive degassing as well. We conclude thatbiomass-burning sources generally dominate sulfate deposition at theevaluated sites. Minor sulfate transport occurs during the shifting of thepredominant winds to the north and west. Occult precipitation sulfatedeposition and likely rain sulfate deposition are mainly linked tobiomass-burning emissions from the Amazon lowlands. Volcanic andanthropogenic emissions from the north and west contribute to occultprecipitation sulfate deposition at the mountain crest Cerro del Consuelo meteorologicalstation and to rain-deposited sulfate at the upriver mountain pass El Tirometeorological station

Natural or anthropogenic? On the origin of atmospheric sulfate deposition in the Andes of southeastern Ecuador