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We investigate 3-D mountains/snow effects on solar fluxdistributions and their impact on surface hydrology over the western UnitedStates, specifically the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada. The WeatherResearch and Forecasting (WRF) model, applied at a 30 km grid resolution, isused in conjunction with a 3-D radiative transfer parameterization coveringa time period from 1 November 2007 to 31 May 2008, during which abundantsnowfall occurred. A comparison of the 3-D WRF simulation with the observedsnow water equivalent (SWE) and precipitation from Snowpack Telemetry(SNOTEL) sites shows reasonable agreement in terms of spatial patterns anddaily and seasonal variability, although the simulation generally has apositive precipitation bias. We show that 3-D mountain features have aprofound impact on the diurnal and monthly variation of surface radiativeand heat fluxes, and on the consequent elevation-dependence of snowmelt andprecipitation distributions. In particular, during the winter months, largedeviations (3-D-PP, in which PP denotes the plane-parallel approach) of the monthly mean surface solar flux are found inthe morning and afternoon hours due to shading effects for elevations below2.5 km. During spring,positive deviations shift to the earlier morning. Over mountaintops higher than 3 km,positive deviations are found throughout the day, with the largestvalues of 40–60 W m<sup>−2</sup> occurring at noon during the snowmelt season ofApril to May. The monthly SWE deviations averaged over the entire domainshow an increase in lower elevations due to reduced snowmelt, which leads to areduction in cumulative runoff. Over higher elevation areas, positive SWEdeviations are found because of increased solar radiation available at thesurface. Overall, this study shows that deviations of SWE due to 3-Dradiation effects range from an increase of 18% at the lowest elevationrange (1.5–2 km) to a decrease of 8% at the highest elevation range(above 3 km). Since lower elevation areas occupy larger fractions of theland surface, the net effect of 3-D radiative transfer is to extend snowmeltand snowmelt-driven runoff into the warm season. Because 60–90% ofwater resources originate from mountains worldwide, the aforementioneddifferences in simulated hydrology due solely to 3-D interactions betweensolar radiation and mountains/snow merit further investigation in order tounderstand the implications of modeling mountain water resources, and theseresources'vulnerability to climate change and air pollution

A WRF simulation of the impact of 3-D radiative transfer on surface hydrology over the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada