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(LR) were also encountered regularly but were rarely seen grooming with other males. These preliminary observations suggest JL and KT—who both received submissive behavior from other males, including the largest male SL —had a GHC 'partnership' 10. More data are evidently needed, but we may tentatively classify GHC as 'habitual' at Bulindi 4. While GHC occurs at Bulindi, it has not been seen 25 km north in the Sonso community at Budongo 11. GHC has not previously been reported present in one community yet absent in another so nearby (Mahale, where it occurs, and Gombe, where it does not, are separated by 150 km; Kibale, where it occurs, and Sonso, where it does not, are 170 km apart). GHC has also not been seen in the small Kasokwa community bordering the southern edge of Budongo (Janette Wallis, pers. comm.) (see Figure 1). Bulindi chimpanzees use tools to excavate subterranean bee nests for honey—a behavior not recorded at Sonso or elsewhere in western Uganda 12. The occurrence of GHC at Bulindi provides further evidence of behavioral variation among chimpanzees in the Budongo region. Multiple small chimpanzee groups inhabit forests patches within the cultivated landscape south of Budongo 13. Chimpanzees occur north of Bulindi, closer to Budongo's southern border (e.g. around Kasongoire Forest Reserve). Future studies should aim to establish the status of GHC among chimpanzees in this intervening area. GHC was first identified in 5/8 (63%) long-term study communities 4. An expanded data-set reveals it occurs in 14/17 communities (82%), including two Pan paniscus communities 5,8,14. If we include Bulindi and Kasokwa it occurs in 15/19 (79%). This suggests GHC is usually present in wild populations. Nevertheless, it is easier to confirm presence than absence in unhabituated or semi-habituated communities. Despite the emerging high prevalence of GHC in wild chimpanzees, the evidence for its absence at three sites (Bossou, Gombe, Sonso) is firm— it has not been seen at these sites in decades of fieldwork. GHC has emerged spontaneously in one captive colony 15 and possibly one sanctuary-released group 9. This indicates GHC is a dynamic social custom that potentially emerges and disappears in local populations repeatedly over time.

<Note> Evaluating the Effectiveness of a 10-Year Old Great Ape Conservation Project in Cameroon