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A natural food chain found throughout European forests includes three trophic levels: forest plants, ungulates, and large carnivores. However, the natural structuring of that system has been affected by humans for so long and in so many ways that nowadays the prevailing notion of the ungulates’ role in forests is that of damage agents to tree regeneration. One of the very few places that could help us understand the original role of ungulates in forest regeneration and dynamics is Bialowieza primeval forest (Poland), which preserves the last remnants of European temperate forests with five species of ungulates (red deer Cervus elaphus, roe deer Capreolus capreolus, moose Alces alces, European bison Bison bonasus and wild boar Sus scrofa) and two species of large predators (wolf Canis lupus and Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx). Historical and contemporary human impact on Bialowieza primeval forest have been diverse but much smaller compared to other European woodlands.

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Ungulate impact on forest regeneration and dynamics and its implications for forest management and conservation – long-term data from Bialowieza primeval forest, Poland