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Using a unique dataset of 524 households from an urban hill town of Darjeeling in India, this study addresses two key issues of (a) determining the drivers of risk perception from water use, and (b) understanding whether water treatment decisions and choice of water sources are jointly made by the households. The results from probit model show that the age of the head, perception of the aesthetic qualities of water (odour and colour), education level of the head, the volume of improved water used, water treatment decision and expenditure on the water are the significant drivers of risk perception. The results of a rare investigation on the likelihood of the joint decision of treating water and choice of water source show that these decisions are indeed jointly made in the study area. Households decision to treat water from an unimproved source and the choice of improved water can be seen as substitutes. INTRODUCTION Water and sanitation are very crucial to the survival of people and the planet, and hence at the core of sustainable development. There have been advances in the use of ‘improved sanitation facilities’ (from 59% in 2000 to 68% in 2015) and ‘improved water sources’ (from 82% in 2000 to 91% in 2015) at the global level (United Nations 2016). However, in developing countries, not all ‘improved sources’ used are safe, and in 2012, an estimated 1.8 billion people were exposed to drinking water source contamination. In addition, the figures which pertain to the number of people having access to safe water seem to be overestimated as recent studies have shown that having access to ‘improved sources’ does not necessarily mean access to ‘safe water’ (Bain et al. 2014, Onda et al. 2012). Lack of safe water, sanitation, and hygiene in most of the developing countries led to 88% of deaths from diarrheal diseases, with a majority of them being children under the age of 5 (UNICEF 2008). In India, an estimated 38% of all deaths are attributable to diarrhoea (Walker et al. 2012). The risks from water contamination, which emerge from sources around watersheds, raw sewage and industrial waste, are more visible in a developing country like India. Making water consumption decisions in such a situation demands reliance on sensory data or perceptions, such as the sight of a dead cow or the smell of rancid water (Crampton & Ragusa 2016). In those cases where contamination cannot be directly observed or perceived, individuals may have to rely on municipal reports on water quality. However, such information has not been easily available or updated, and also not easily understood by an average consumer (Crampton 2014). Therefore, it becomes important that individuals rely on the personal judgement of water attributes to determine potential risks. Such attributes may include colour (how the water looks), taste, and smell of water (Crampton & Ragusa 2016). An alternative to this would be to ‘trust’ that the water providing agency is providing water that adequately addresses all the risks, and thus influences all the stakeholders (Serveiss 2002, Sterling et al. 2014) which is very likely to happen in the municipalities of India, and in Darjeeling (our study area) in particular. This could be so because citizens, who form a vital component of stakeholders, have little or no public discourse on the water quality. Such lack of public discourse is evident in developed nations like Australia and New Zealand too (Crampton & Ragusa 2016). Studies which identify factors that affect risk perception related to water perception are still scarce and their findings being not conclusive (Onjala et al. 2014). Some related studies have found that perceived odour and taste of water (Jardine et al. 1999, Nauges & Berg 2009), the perceived taste of water and its related source (Levallois et al. 1999), age, income, and distance to the water treatment facility (Turgeon at al. 2004) to be the major drivers of risk perception. 2020 pp. 1303-1310 Vol. 19 p-ISSN: 0972-6268 (Print copies up to 2016) No. 3 Nature Environment and Pollution Technology An International Quarterly Scientific Journal Original Research Paper e-ISSN: 2395-3454 Open Access Journal Nat. Env. & Poll. Tech. Website: www.neptjournal.com Received: 08-10-2019 Revised: 06-11-2019 Accepted: 11-12-2019

Risk Perception, Choice of Source and Treatment Decision: Exploring Water Consumption Behaviour in Darjeeling, India