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Raising children is a fundamentally important human act. Parenting – understood as allocating time and resources to one’s children – is essential to secure the survival and well-being of children and societies at large. European societies promote distinct gender ideologies of how new parents should allocate their time and resources, thereby directing fathers and mothers to have particular experiences in these emotionally significant relationships (Kremer 2007). These gender ideologies, so we claim, are intertwined with the roles ascribed to the state, market and family in the provision of paid and unpaid forms of work and care. While ascribing unpaid housework and care exclusively to women has been an outcome of the industrial revolution (Pinchbeck 2013; Tilly 1994; Tilly and Scott 1987), new ascriptions have been debated and negotiated on several societal levels since. In the context of parenthood, key actors where these negotiations can be observed are dual-earner couples expecting their first child. At present, the majority of new mothers, but few new fathers, adjust their employment in favour of childcare, thereby accepting negative career consequences, including financial dependence on their partner or the welfare state. These gendered choices penalize women and contribute to persistent gender inequalities in European societies. If we are to undergo a fundamental change in how paid work and care work are divided between men and women in the twenty-first century, we argue that dual-earner parents will be the pioneers. The degree to which these couples are in a position to rethink and negotiate motherhood and fatherhood is, we suggest, highly dependent on the policy context in which couples find themselves. It is therefore necessary to observe

Institutions as reference points for parents-to-be in European societies: a theoretical and analytical framework