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Predation by wolves Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 in ungulate communities in Europe, with special reference to the multi-species system of Bialowieza Primeval Forest (Poland/Belarus), was assessed on the basis results of original research and literature. In historical times (post-glacial period), the geographical range of the wolf and most ungulate species in Europe decreased considerably. Community richness of ungulates and potential prey for wolves, decreased over most of the continent from 5-6 species to 2-3 species. The wolf is typically an opportunistic predator with a highly diverse diet; however, cervids are its preferred prey. Red deer Cervus elaphus are positively selected from ungulate communities in all localities, moose Alces alces are the major prey only where middle-sized species are scarce. Poe deer Capreolus capreolus are locally preyed on intensively, especially where they have high density, co-exist mainly with moose or wild boar Sus scrofa, and red deer is scarce or absent. Wild boar are generally avoided, except in a few locations; and European bison Bison bonasus are not preyed upon by wolves. Wolf predation contributes substantially to the total natural mortality of ungulates in Europe: 42.5% for red deer, 34.5% for moose, 25.7% for roe der, and only 16% for wild boar. Food niche breadth (B) of wolves in Europe, calculated only for the ungulates considered in this study, increases with the number of ungulate species in the community. There is also a significant relationship between ungulate community breadth and food niche breadth of wolves. Food niche breadth of wolves, however, does not achieve very high values even in the richest ungulate communities. Wolves easily adapt to locally abundant food of anthropogenic origin (livestock, garbage). The level of predation on livestock may be a result of different husbandry practices (eg use of livestock guarding dogs) rather than of differences in availability of wild and domestic prey. Available data from Europe suggest that wolves likely limit density of red deer and moose in some areas. Poe deer density can be decreased locally by wolves but is limited mainly by lynx Lynx lynx. Wild boar density is more influenced by mast crops of Quercus spp. and Fagus silvatica (and to a lesser extent by snow depth) than by wolf predation.

The trophic ecology of wolves and their predatory role in ungulate communities of forest ecosystems in Europe