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Temperature has strong effects on species composition and traits. These effects can differ within and between species groups. Thermoregulation and mobility are traits which can be strongly affected by altitudinal distribution. Our aim was to investigate the influence of altitude on the species richness, abundance and composition of species groups with different trophic, thermoregulatory and mobility traits. Carabids (  Coleoptera  ;   Carabidae  ), hoverflies (  Diptera  :   Syrphidae  ) and birds (  Aves  :   Passeriformes  ) were counted in three altitudinal belts with a total elevation difference of 700 m (from 300 m to 1000 m a.s.l.) in the same habitat type (non-fragmented temperate montane mixed beech and fir forest). We found that endotherms and more mobile species (i.e. birds) had a smaller turnover than ectotherms (i.e. hoverflies) and less mobile species (i.e. carabids), from which we can predict that the former species will undergo a less extreme shift than the latter in global warming scenarios. Species turnover across the altitudinal gradient increased from birds to hoverflies to carabid beetles. The effect of altitude on phenology was different between the studied ectotherm species groups (carabids and hoverflies). Hoverflies experience a phenological delay of species richness and abundance at higher altitudes in spring, but not at the end of summer, which implies that hoverfly phenology is affected by a change in temperature, while carabid beetle abundance exhibited a delay in phenology in summer at higher altitudes. We suggest that species that are expected to be most affected by climate change, such as ectotherms and species with poor dispersal ability should be prioritised as the best indicators for monitoring and conservation management purposes.

Contrasting effects of altitude on species groups with different traits in a non-fragmented montane temperate forest