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Super-Earths possess low-mass H$_2$/He atmospheres (typically less than 10%by mass). However, the origins of super-Earth atmospheres have not yet beenascertained. We investigate the role of rapid disk clearing by photoevaporationduring the formation of super-Earths and their atmospheres. We perform unifiedsimulations of super-Earth formation and atmospheric evolution in evolvingdisks that consider both photoevaporative winds and magnetically driven diskwinds. For the growth mode of planetary cores, we consider two cases in whichplanetary embryos grow with and without pebble accretion. Our main findings aresummarized as follows. (i) The time span of atmospheric accretion is shortenedby rapid disk dissipation due to photoevaporation, which prevents super-Earthcores from accreting massive atmospheres. (ii) Even if planetary cores growrapidly by embryo accretion in the case without pebble accretion, the onset ofrunaway gas accretion is delayed because the isolation mass for embryoaccretion is small. Together with rapid disk clearing, the accretion of massiveatmospheres can be avoided. (iii) After rapid disk clearing, a number ofhigh-eccentricity embryos can remain in outer orbits. Thereafter, such embryosmay collide with the super-Earths, leading to efficient impact erosion ofaccreted atmospheres. We, therefore, find that super-Earths with low-massH$_2$/He atmospheres are naturally produced by N-body simulations that considerrealistic disk evolution.

astrophysical journal/the astrophysical journal

Unified simulations of planetary formation and atmospheric evolution II:  Rapid disk clearing by photoevaporation yields low-mass super-Earth  atmospheres