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A substantial number of super-Earths have been discovered, and atmospheres oftransiting super-Earths have also been observed by transmission spectroscopy.Several lines of observational evidence indicate that most super-Earths do notpossess massive H$_2$/He atmospheres. However, accretion and retention of lessmassive atmospheres on super-Earths challenge planet formation theory. Weconsider the following three mechanisms: (i) envelope heating by pebbleaccretion, (ii) mass loss during giant impacts, and (iii) atmospheric loss bystellar X-ray and EUV photoevaporation. We investigate whether these mechanismsinfluence the amount of the atmospheres that form around super-Earths. Wedevelop a code combining an N-body simulation of pebble-driven planetaryformation and an atmospheric evolution simulation. We demonstrate that theobserved orbital properties of super-Earths are well reproduced by the resultsof our simulations. However, (i) heating by pebble accretion ceases prior todisk dispersal, (ii) the frequency of giant impact events is too low to sculptmassive atmospheres, and (iii) many super-Earths having H$_2$/He atmospheres of$\gtrsim 10$ wt% survive against stellar irradiations for 1 Gyr. Therefore, itis likely that other mechanisms such as suppression of gas accretion arerequired to explain less massive atmospheres ($\lesssim 10$ wt%) ofsuper-Earths.

astrophysical journal/the astrophysical journal

Unified simulations of planetary formation and atmospheric evolution:  Effects of pebble accretion, giant impacts, and stellar irradiations on  super-Earth formation