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Following the induction of learned helplessness via forced exposure to recurring failure, college students experienced either abbreviated (35 trials) or extended (70 trials) treatment with either partial reinforcement or continuous reinforcement during a reversal phase. Subsequently, all subjects encountered a second noncontingency involving a protracted period of nonreinforce-ment (extinction). The results of the experiment indicated that partial as contrasted with continuous reinforcement occasioned greater immunization against recurrent helplessness; that is, subjects treated with intermittent success and failure were more persistent in the face of repeated exposures to negative outcomes than were subjects treated with success only. Moreover, extended treatment resulted in greater immunization against helplessness than did abbreviated treatment, regardless of schedule type. These findings are discussed within the conceptual frameworks of frustration theory and the reformulated learned helplessness hypothesis.

Treatment length as a determinant of immunization against learned helplessness in humans