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The present paper addresses the problems of whether recognition failure of recallable words is a function of both recognition and recall, and whether recognition failure is restricted to a small and specifiable subset of study items. A meta-analysis of the Nilsson-Gardiner database (Nilsson &amp; Gardiner, 1993) showed that recognition given recall was positively correlated with recognition and negatively correlated with recall. Two new experiments are reported, the first one using 48 word pairs for which recognition failure was found in previous studies. An item analysis of the data demonstrated that recognition failure occurred primarily with noun-adjective pairs. The second experiment compared Norwegian-American and American-Norwegian name pairs. Wide deviation from the Tulving-Wiseman function (Tulving &amp; Wiseman, 1975) was observed for the latter condition. In both conditions, recognition failure occurred with only the items for which the beginnings of names shared three or more letters. It is concluded that recognition failure occurs when there exists a relationship between the members of an A-B pairs that is independent of their pairing in the study context. The Tulving-Wiseman function is the result of collapsing across items in the analysis of previous studies.

Item-specific effects in recognition failure: Reasons for rejection of the Tulving-Wiseman function