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iii  Acknowledgments  iv  Table of Contents v  List of Figures vii  List of Tables x  Introduction  1  The Cliff 1    Site Overview  4    Previous Research 5    Research Design 7    Thesis Organization 9  Chapter 1: Historical Context for Native Copper Mining in Lake Superior 11    Geology of the Keweenaw 11    Prehistoric Copper Mining 14    Early European Accounts16    Early Mining Attempts 18    American Involvement20  Opening the Keweenaw23    The Pittsburgh and Boston Copper Harbor Mining Company28    Lease 4: The Workings at Copper Harbor 32  Chapter 2: History of the Cliff Mine35  Lease 5: The Discovery of the Cliff Vein 35    The Early Years at the Cliff, 1846‐184938    Early Mining Practice in the Keweenaw: Working Underground42    Work at the Surface49    The First Dividend 52  The Keweenaw Takes Off55    Transition to Steam Power 56    Profits Over Planning58  Moving North 60    Modernization Conquers the Bluff62    The Cliff Under Watson and Rawlings69    The Declining Years77 

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More favorable combination of circumstances could hardly have been desired : a bottom to top examination of the Pittsburgh and Boston Mining Company's Cliff Mine