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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv 1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Homogeneous Ice Nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2 Heterogeneous Ice Nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.3 Immersion Nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.4 Contact Nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.5 Pressure Induced Chemical Potential Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.6 Wetting Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.7 Electrowetting And Electrofreezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.8 Droplet Vibration On A Vertically-Oscillating Plane . . . . . . . . . 17 vii 2 Ice Nucleation At The Contact Line Triggered By Transient Electrowetting Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.3 Experimental Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.5 Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3 Non-thermal Ice Nucleation Observed At Distorted Contact Lines Of Supercooled Water Drops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.3 Experimental Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.5 Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 4 Minimalist Model of Ice Microphysics in Mixed-Phase Stratiform Clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 4.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 4.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 4.3 Model Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 4.4 Comparison Of Results With LES Cloud Model And ISDAC Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 viii 4.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.6 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 5 Microphysical Consequences Of The Spatial Distribution Of Ice Nucleation In Mixed-Phase Stratiform Clouds . . . . . . . . . . . 79 5.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 5.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 5.3 Analytical Model Of Ice Growth In A Mixed-Phase Stratiform Cloud 83 5.4 Lagrangian Ice Particle Tracking In LES Time Dependent Field . . 88 5.5 Influence Of The Spatial Distribution Of Ice Nucleation . . . . . . . 91 5.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5.7 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 6 Long-Lifetime Ice Particles In Mixed-Phase Stratiform Clouds: Quasi-Steady And Recycled Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 6.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 6.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 6.3 Model Setup For Langrangian Ice Particle Tracking In 3D Time Dependent Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 6.4 Long Lifetime Ice Particles In A 3D Time Dependent Velocity Field 113 6.5 Long Lifetime Ice Particles In A 2D Idealized Velocity Field . . . . 123 6.6 Analytical Solutions For Trajectories Of Constant-Size Ice Particles In Simple Velocity Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 ix 6.6.1 Solid Body Rotation Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6.6.2 Irrotational Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 6.7 Ice Water Content In A Coupled Versus Decoupled Boundary Layer 146 6.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.9 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 7 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 7.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 7.2 Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 7.3 Additional Research Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

LABORATORY, COMPUTATIONAL AND THEORETICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF ICE NUCLEATION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR MIXED PHASE CLOUDS