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The human skin is exposed to various environmental factors including solar radiation and ambient air pollutants. Although, due to its physical and biological properties, the skin efficiently protects the body against the harm of environmental factors, their excessive levels and possible synergistic action may lead to harmful effects. Among particulate matter present in ambient air pollutants, PM 2.5 is of particular importance for it can penetrate both disrupted and intact skin, causing adverse effects to skin tissue. Although certain components of PM 2.5 can exhibit photochemical activity, only a limited amount of data regarding the interaction of PM 2.5 with light and its effect on skin tissue are available. This study focused on light-induced toxicity in cultured human keratinocytes, which was mediated by PM 2.5 obtained in different seasons. Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) were employed to determine sizes of the particles. The ability of PM 2.5 to photogenerate free radicals and singlet oxygen was studied using EPR spin-trapping and time-resolved singlet oxygen phosphorescence, respectively. Solar simulator with selected filters was used as light source for cell treatment to model environmental lightning conditions. Cytotoxicity of photoexcited PM 2.5 was analyzed using MTT assay, PI staining and flow cytometry, and the apoptotic pathway was further examined using Caspase-3/7 assay and RT-PCR. Iodometric assay and JC-10 assay were used to investigate damage to cell lipids and mitochondria. Light-excited PM 2.5 were found to generate free radicals and singlet oxygen in season-dependent manner. HaCaT cells containing PM 2.5 and irradiated with UV-Vis exhibited oxidative stress features-increased peroxidation of intracellular lipids, decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential, enhanced expression of oxidative stress related genes and apoptotic cell death. The data indicate that sunlight can significantly increase PM 2.5 -mediated toxicity in skin cells.

Fine Particulate Matter-Induced Oxidative Stress Mediated by UVA-Visible Light Leads to Keratinocyte Damage