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Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease with no known cure. Approximately 90% of ALS cases are sporadic, although multiple genetic risk factors have been recently revealed also in sporadic ALS (SALS). The pathological expansion of a hexanucleotide repeat in chromosome 9 open reading frame 72 ( C9orf72) is the most common genetic mutation identified in familial ALS, detected also in 5-10% of SALS patients. C9orf72 -related ALS phenotype appears to be dependent on several modifiers, including demographic factors. Sex has been reported as an independent factor influencing ALS development, with men found to be more susceptible than women. Exposure to both female and male sex hormones have been shown to influence disease risk or progression. Moreover, interplay between genetics and sex has been widely investigated in ALS preclinical models and in large populations of ALS patients carrying C9orf72 repeat expansion. In light of the current need for reclassifying ALS patients into pathologically homogenous subgroups potentially responsive to targeted personalized therapies, we aimed to review the recent literature on the role of genetics and sex as both independent and synergic factors, in the pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and prognosis of ALS. Sex-dependent outcomes may lead to optimizing clinical trials for developing patient-specific therapies for ALS.

Genetics and Sex in the Pathogenesis of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS): Is There a Link?