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With recent rapid urbanization, sustainable development is required to prevent health risks associated with adverse environmental exposures from the unsustainable development of cities. Ambient air pollution is the greatest environmental risk factor for human health and is responsible for considerable levels of mortality worldwide. Burden of disease assessment (BoD) of air pollution in and across cities, and how these estimates vary according to socioeconomic status and exposure to road traffic, can help city planners and health practitioners to mitigate adverse exposures and promote public health. In this study, we quantified the health impacts of air pollution exposure (PM 2.5 and NO 2 ) at the census tract level in Houston, Texas, employing a standard BoD assessment framework to estimate the premature deaths (adults 30 to 78 years old) attributable to PM 2.5 and NO 2 . We found that 631 (95% CI: 366-809) premature deaths were attributable to PM 2.5 in Houston, and 159 (95% CI: 0-609) were attributable to NO 2 , in 2010. Complying with the World Health Organization air quality guidelines (annual mean: 10 μg/m 3 for PM 2.5 ) and the US National Ambient Air Quality standard (annual mean: 12 μg/m 3 for PM 2.5 ) could save 82 (95% CI: 42-95) and 8 (95% CI: 6-10) lives in Houston, respectively. PM 2.5 was responsible for 7.3% of all-cause premature deaths in Houston, in 2010, which is higher than the death rate associated with diabetes mellites, Alzheimer's disease, or motor vehicle crashes in the US. Households with lower income had a higher risk of adverse exposure and attributable premature deaths. We also showed a positive relationship between health impacts attributable to air pollution and road traffic passing through census tracts, which was more prominent for NO 2 .

Burden of Disease Assessment of Ambient Air Pollution and Premature Mortality in Urban Areas: The Role of Socioeconomic Status and Transportation