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The purpose of this paper was to study the influence of cartographic scale and flight design on data acquisition using unmanned aerial systems (UASs) to create augmented reality 3D geovisualization of geosites. The relationship between geographical and cartographic scales, the spatial resolution of UAS-acquired images, along with their relationship with the produced 3D models of geosites, were investigated. Additionally, the lighting of the produced 3D models was examined as a key visual variable in the 3D space. Furthermore, the adaptation of the 360° panoramas as environmental lighting parameters was considered. The geosite selected as a case study was the gorge of the river Voulgaris in the western part of the island of Lesvos, which is located in the northeastern part of the Aegean Sea in Greece. The methodology applied consisted of four pillars: (i) scale-variant flight planning, (ii) data acquisition, (iii) data processing, (iv) AR, 3D geovisualization. Based on the geographic and cartographic scales, the flight design calculates the most appropriate flight parameters (height, speed, and image overlaps) to achieve the desired spatial resolution (3 cm) capable of illustrating all the scale-variant details of the geosite when mapped in 3D. High-resolution oblique aerial images and 360° panoramic aerial images were acquired using scale-variant flight plans. The data were processed using image processing algorithms to produce 3D models and create mosaic panoramas. The 3D geovisualization of the geosite selected was created using the textured 3D model produced from the aerial images. The panoramic images were converted to high-dynamic-range image (HDRI) panoramas and used as a background to the 3D model. The geovisualization was transferred and displayed in the virtual space where the panoramas were used as a light source, thus enlightening the model. Data acquisition and flight planning were crucial scale-variant steps in the 3D geovisualization. These two processes comprised the most important factors in 3D geovisualization creation embedded in the virtual space as they designated the geometry of the 3D model. The use of panoramas as the illumination parameter of an outdoor 3D scene of a geosite contributed significantly to its photorealistic performance into the 3D augmented reality and virtual space.

applied sciences

Scale-Variant Flight Planning for the Creation of 3D Geovisualization and Augmented Reality Maps of Geosites: The Case of Voulgaris Gorge, Lesvos, Greece