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Space is a challenging environment for the human body, due to the combined effects\udof reduced gravity (microgravity) and cosmic radiation. Known effects of microgravity\udrange from the blood redistribution that affects the cardiovascular system and the eye to\udmuscle wasting, bone loss, anemia, and immune depression. About cosmic radiation, the\udshielding provided by the spaceship hull is far less efficient than that afforded at ground\udlevel by the combined effects of the Earth atmosphere and magnetic field. The eye and\udits nervous layer (the retina) are affected by both microgravity and heavy ions exposure.\udConsidering the importance of sight for long-term manned flights, visual research aimed\udat devising measures to protect the eye from environmental conditions of the outer\udspace represents a special challenge to meet. In this review we focus on the impact\udof microgravity on embryonic development, discussing the roles of mechanical forces in\udthe context of the neutral buoyancy the embryo experiences in the womb. At variance\udwith its adverse effects on the adult human body, simulated microgravity may provide a\udunique tool for understanding the biomechanical events involved in the development and\udassembly in vitro of three-dimensional (3D) ocular tissues. Prospective benefits are the\uddevelopment of novel safety measures to protect the human eye from cosmic radiation\udin microgravity during long-term manned spaceflights in the outer space, as well as the\udgeneration of human 3D-retinas with its supporting structures to develop innovative and\udeffective therapeutic options for degenerative eye diseases

Microgravity, Stem Cells, and Embryonic Development: Challenges and Opportunities for 3D Tissue Generation