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Switch costs are defined as the phenomenon that bilinguals have worse performance in switch trials relative to non-switch trials. Bilinguals’ naming language and switch predictability have been found to influence the magnitude of switch costs. However, how these two factors modulate switch costs in different phases (i.e., lemma activation and language selection) during language production remains unclear. Most previous studies using the language switching paradigm did not dissociate lemma activation from language selection, because the language cue was either presented simultaneously with or prior to a stimulus. Therefore, here we modified the language switching paradigm by presenting a digit stimulus prior to a visual cue. This allowed us to dissociate lemma activation from language selection, and thus we were able to investigate the mechanisms underlying the effects of naming language and switch predictability on switch costs during the two different phases in language production. Unbalanced Indonesian-Chinese bilinguals were required to name digits in either their L1 (Indonesian) or L2 (Chinese), and their reaction times and electrophysiological responses were recorded. The behavioral results showed the effects of switch predictability on switch costs, with responses in switch trials being slower than those in non-switch trials in the low switch predictability condition, while there was no significant difference in response times between switch trials and non-switch trials in the high switch predictability condition. The event-related potential results showed that neither naming language nor switch predictability affected switch costs during the lemma activation phase, but both did so during the language selection phase, particularly at the language task schema competition stage. The results imply that naming language and switch predictability affect switch costs mainly during the language task schema competition stage.

Effects of Naming Language and Switch Predictability on Switch Costs in Bilingual Language Production