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Enhancement of the natural defenses of a plant by beneficial microorganisms, i.e., endophytic bacteria and fungi or fertilizers such as copper phosphonates, could result in a potential alternative strategy against verticillium wilt of olive tree ( Olea europaea ). In this study, two beneficial microorganisms (the fungus  Aureobasidium pullulans  AP08 and the bacterium  Bacillus amyloliquefaciens  PAB-024) and a phosphonate salt copper phosphite (CuPh) were evaluated for their effectiveness as host resistance inducers against  Verticillium dahliae  in olive. To this end, 6-month-old healthy olive plants of the susceptible cultivar Picual were treated by foliar or root applications by spraying 15 ml per plant or by irrigation with 350 ml per plant of the dilutions of each product (CuPh: 3 or 10 ml l –1 , respectively; PAB-024: 10 8  UFC ml –1 ; AP08: 10 6  UFC ml –1 ). Treatments were conducted weekly from 2 weeks before inoculation to 10 days after inoculation. A cornmeal–water–sand mixture (1:2:9; w:v:w) colonized by  V. dahliae  was used for plant inoculation. Additionally, treated and noninoculated, nontreated and inoculated, and nontreated and noninoculated plants were included for comparative purposes. Disease severity progress and shoot fresh weight were assessed. Parameters involved in plant resistance were monitored through determination and quantification of reactive oxygen species (ROS) response (H 2 O 2 ), and evaluation of hormones was done by gene expression analysis.  Aureobasidium pullulans  and CuPh were the most effective in disease reduction  in planta  by foliar or root application, respectively. Plants treated with CuPh showed significantly higher shoot fresh weight compared to the other treatments. ROS was significantly enhanced in plants treated with  B. amyloliquefaciens  PAB-024 compared to the rest of treatments and control. With regard to the evaluation of hormones, high levels of salicylic acid were detected on leaves from all treatment combinations, but without significant enhancements compared to the nontreated control. Regarding the gene expression related to salicylic acid, only the  WRKY5  gene has shown a strong enhancement in the treatment with  B. amyloliquefaciens . On the other hand, a strong accumulation of jasmonic acid and jasmonic acid-isoleucine in plants treated with  A. pullulans  was observed in all the tissues analyzed and also in the roots of plants treated with  B. amyloliquefaciens  and CuPh.

Resistance Induction in Olive Tree (Olea europaea) Against Verticillium Wilt by Two Beneficial Microorganisms and a Copper Phosphite Fertilizer