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Dinoflagellates of the family Symbiodiniaceae are predominantly essential symbionts of corals and other marine organisms. Recent research reveals extensive genome sequence divergence among Symbiodiniaceae taxa and high phylogenetic diversity hidden behind subtly different cell morphologies. Using an alignment-free phylogenetic approach based on sub-sequences of fixed length  k  (i.e.  k -mers), we assessed the phylogenetic signal among whole-genome sequences from 16 Symbiodiniaceae taxa (including the genera of  Symbiodinium ,  Breviolum ,  Cladocopium ,  Durusdinium  and  Fugacium ) and two strains of  Polarella glacialis  as outgroup. Based on phylogenetic trees inferred from  k -mers in distinct genomic regions (i.e. repeat-masked genome sequences, protein-coding sequences, introns and repeats) and in protein sequences, the phylogenetic signal associated with protein-coding DNA and the encoded amino acids is largely consistent with the Symbiodiniaceae phylogeny based on established markers, such as large subunit rRNA. The other genome sequences (introns and repeats) exhibit distinct phylogenetic signals, supporting the expected differential evolutionary pressure acting on these regions. Our analysis of conserved core  k -mers revealed the prevalence of conserved  k -mers (&amp;gt;95% core 23-mers among all 18 genomes) in annotated repeats and non-genic regions of the genomes. We observed 180 distinct repeat types that are significantly enriched in genomes of the symbiotic versus free-living  Symbiodinium  taxa, suggesting an enhanced activity of transposable elements linked to the symbiotic lifestyle. We provide evidence that representation of alignment-free phylogenies as dynamic networks enhances the ability to generate new hypotheses about genome evolution in Symbiodiniaceae. These results demonstrate the potential of alignment-free phylogenetic methods as a scalable approach for inferring comprehensive, unbiased whole-genome phylogenies of dinoflagellates and more broadly of microbial eukaryotes.

Alignment-Free Analysis of Whole-Genome Sequences From Symbiodiniaceae Reveals Different Phylogenetic Signals in Distinct Regions