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Decoding the mechanisms of plant defense against plant pathogens in a scenario where antagonistic activity and the plant growth-promoting effects of useful organisms intervene simultaneously is a new frontier of plant pathology. Here, we demonstrated that (i) two selected strains of  Trichoderma asperellum  and  Trichoderma atroviride  promoted tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum ) growth and reduced the severity of disease caused by the oomycete  Phytophthora nicotianae  and (ii) the genetic patterns of the components of the experimental model system tomato– Trichoderma  spp.– P. nicotianae  were differentially expressed. The beneficial effects in both the promotion of the growth of host plant and the biological control of the pathogen by two selected strains of different  Trichoderma  species were tested both  in planta  and  in vitro . In both respects,  T. atroviride  demonstrated to be more effective than  T. asperellum . Additionally, the simultaneous transcriptional reprogramming of several plant defense-related genes, pathogen effectors, and mycoparasitism-related genes in tomato,  P. nicotianae , and  Trichoderma  spp., respectively, was evaluated during the three-component interaction. Results support the hypothesis that  Trichoderma  spp. elicit the expression of plant defense-related genes. As expected, a mycoparasitism-related gene was significantly up-regulated in  Trichoderma -colonizing tomato plants infected by  P. nicotianae . Finally, a marked up-regulation of the genes encoding two necrosis-inducing effectors was observed in  P. nicotianae  infecting tomato plants colonized by  Trichoderma . In conclusion, this study is a contribution toward understanding the genetic pathways related with the ability of  Trichoderma  spp. to counteract the challenge of  P. nicotianae  infections on tomato. Additionally, the experiments revealed the beneficial effects in the tomato growth promotion of a new  T. atroviride  strain and its good antagonistic effectiveness in the biological control of root and crown rot incited by  P. nicotianae , confirming that  Trichoderma  spp. can be a powerful tool in integrated pest management strategies of  Phytophthora  diseases of horticultural crops.

frontiers in plant science

Trichoderma Counteracts the Challenge of Phytophthora nicotianae Infections on Tomato by Modulating Plant Defense Mechanisms and the Expression of Crinkler, Necrosis-Inducing Phytophthora Protein 1, and Cellulose-Binding Elicitor Lectin Pathogenic Effectors