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Narrow-leafed lupin ( Lupinus angustifolius  L.) is a moderate-yielding legume crop known for its high grain protein content and contribution to soil improvement. It is cultivated under photoperiods ranging from 9 to 17 h, as a spring-sown (in colder locations) or as an autumn-sown crop (in warmer regions). Wild populations require a prolonged cold period, called vernalization, to induce flowering. The key achievement of  L. angustifolius  domestication was the discovery of two natural mutations (named  Ku  and  Jul ) conferring vernalization independence. These mutations are overlapping deletion variants in the promoter of  LanFTc1 , a homolog of the  Arabidopsis thaliana FLOWERING LOCUS T  ( FT ) gene. The third deletion, named here as  Pal , was recently found in primitive germplasm. In this study, we genotyped  L. angustifolius  germplasm that differs in domestication status and geographical origin for  LanFTc1  alleles, which we then phenotyped to establish flowering time and vernalization responsiveness. The  Ku  and  Jul  lines were vernalization-independent and early flowering, wild ( ku ) lines were vernalization-dependent and late flowering, whereas  the Pal  line conferred intermediate phenotype. Three lines representing  ku ,  Pal , and  Ku  alleles were subjected to gene expression surveys under 8- and 16-h photoperiods.  FT  homologs ( LanFTa1 ,  LanFTa2 ,  LanFTc1 , and  LanFTc2 ) and some genes selected by recent expression quantitative trait loci mapping were analyzed. Expression profiles of  LanFTc1  and  LanAGL8  ( AGAMOUS-like 8 ) matched observed differences in flowering time between genotypes, highlighted by high induction after vernalization in the  ku  line. Moreover, these genes revealed altered circadian clock control in  Pal  line under short days.  LanFD  ( FD ) and  LanCRLK1  ( CALCIUM/CALMODULIN-REGULATED RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE 1 ) were negatively responsive to vernalization in  Ku  and  Pal  lines but positively responsive or variable in  ku , whereas  LanUGT85A2  ( UDP-GLUCOSYL TRANSFERASE 85A2 ) was significantly suppressed by vernalization in all lines. Such a pattern suggests the opposite regulation of these gene pairs in the vernalization pathway.  LanCRLK1  and  LanUGT85A2  are homologs of  A. thaliana  genes involved in the  FLOWERING LOCUS C  ( FLC ) vernalization pathway. Lupins, like many other legumes, do not have any  FLC  homologs. Therefore, candidate genes surveyed in this study, namely  LanFTc1 ,  LanAGL8, LanCRLK1 , and  LanUGT85A2 , may constitute anchors for further elucidation of molecular components contributing to vernalization response in legumes.

Photoperiod and Vernalization Control of Flowering-Related Genes: A Case Study of the Narrow-Leafed Lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.)