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Aspergillus flavus  is a soil-borne saprophyte and an opportunistic pathogen of both humans and plants. This fungus not only causes disease in important food and feed crops such as maize, peanut, cottonseed, and tree nuts but also produces the toxic and carcinogenic secondary metabolites (SMs) known as aflatoxins. Polyamines (PAs) are ubiquitous polycations that influence normal growth, development, and stress responses in living organisms and have been shown to play a significant role in fungal pathogenesis. Biosynthesis of spermidine (Spd) is critical for cell growth as it is required for hypusination-mediated activation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF5A), and other biochemical functions. The tri-amine Spd is synthesized from the diamine putrescine (Put) by the enzyme spermidine synthase (Spds). Inactivation of  spds  resulted in a total loss of growth and sporulation  in vitro  which could be partially restored by addition of exogenous Spd. Complementation of the  Δspds  mutant with a wild type (WT)  A. flavus spds  gene restored the WT phenotype. In WT  A. flavus , exogenous supply of Spd ( in vitro ) significantly increased the production of sclerotia and SMs. Infection of maize kernels with the  Δspds  mutant resulted in a significant reduction in fungal growth, sporulation, and aflatoxin production compared to controls. Quantitative PCR of  Δspds  mutant infected seeds showed down-regulation of aflatoxin biosynthetic genes in the mutant compared to WT  A. flavus  infected seeds. Expression analyses of PA metabolism/transport genes during  A. flavus -maize interaction showed significant increase in the expression of arginine decarboxylase ( Adc ) and  S -adenosylmethionine decarboxylase ( Samdc ) genes in the maize host and PA uptake transporters in the fungus. The results presented here demonstrate that Spd biosynthesis is critical for normal development and pathogenesis of  A. flavus  and pre-treatment of a  Δspds  mutant with Spd or Spd uptake from the host plant, are insufficient to restore WT levels of pathogenesis and aflatoxin production during seed infection. The data presented here suggest that future studies targeting spermidine biosynthesis in  A. flavus , using RNA interference-based host-induced gene silencing approaches, may be an effective strategy to reduce aflatoxin contamination in maize and possibly in other susceptible crops.

frontiers in plant science

The Aspergillus flavus Spermidine Synthase (spds) Gene, Is Required for Normal Development, Aflatoxin Production, and Pathogenesis During Infection of Maize Kernels