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Oil palm ( Elaeis guineensis ) is the most productive oil bearing crop worldwide. It has three fruit forms, namely  dura  (thick-shelled),  pisifera  (shell-less) and  tenera  (thin-shelled), which are controlled by the  SHELL  gene. The fruit forms exhibit monogenic co-dominant inheritance, where  tenera  is a hybrid obtained by crossing maternal  dura  and paternal  pisifera  palms. Commercial palm oil production is based on planting thin-shelled  tenera  palms, which typically yield 30% more oil than  dura  palms, while  pisifera  palms are female-sterile and have little to no palm oil yield. It is clear that  tenera  hybrids produce more oil than either parent due to single gene heterosis. The unintentional planting of  dura  or  pisifera  palms reduces overall yield and impacts land utilization that would otherwise be devoted to more productive  tenera  palms. Here, we identify three additional novel mutant alleles of the  SHELL  gene, which encode a type II MADS-box transcription factor, and determine oil yield via control of shell fruit form phenotype in a manner similar to two previously identified mutant  SHELL  alleles. Assays encompassing all five mutations account for all  dura  and  pisifera  palms analyzed. By assaying for these variants in 10,224 mature palms or seedlings, we report the first large scale accurate genotype-based determination of the fruit forms in independent oil palm planting sites and in the nurseries that supply them throughout Malaysia. The measured non- tenera  contamination rate (10.9% overall on a weighted average basis) underscores the importance of  SHELL  genetic testing of seedlings prior to planting in production fields. By eliminating non- tenera  contamination, comprehensive  SHELL  genetic testing can improve sustainability by increasing yield on existing planted lands. In addition, economic modeling demonstrates that  SHELL  gene testing will confer substantial annual economic gains to the oil palm industry, to Malaysian gross national income and to Malaysian government tax receipts.

Non-tenera Contamination and the Economic Impact of SHELL Genetic Testing in the Malaysian Independent Oil Palm Industry