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Boreal coniferous species with wide geographic distributions show substantial variation in autumn cold acclimation among populations. To determine how this variation is inherited across generations, we conducted a progeny test and examined the development of cold hardening in open-pollinated second-generation (F 2 ) progeny of  Abies sachalinensis . The F 1  parents had different genetic backgrounds resulting from reciprocal interpopulational crosses between low-elevation (L) and high-elevation (H) populations: L × L, L × H, H × L, and H × H. Paternity analysis of the F 2  progeny using molecular genetic markers showed that 91.3% of the fathers were located in surrounding stands of the F 1  planting site (i.e., not in the F 1  test population). The remaining fathers were assigned to F 1  parents of the L × L cross-type. This indicates that the high-elevation genome in the F 1  parents was not inherited by the F 2  population via pollen flow. The timing of autumn cold acclimation in the F 2  progeny depended on the cross-type of the F 1  mother. The progeny of H × H mothers showed less damage in freezing tests than the progeny of other cross-types. Statistical modeling supported a linear effect of genome origin. In the best model, variation in freezing damage was explained by the proportion of maternally inherited high-elevation genome. These results suggest that autumn cold acclimation was partly explained by the additive effect of the responsible maternal genome. Thus, the offspring that inherited a greater proportion of the high-elevation genome developed cold hardiness earlier. Genome-based variation in the regulation of autumn cold acclimation matched the local climatic conditions, which may be a key factor in elevation-dependent adaptation.

Influence of low- and high-elevation plant genomes on the regulation of autumn cold acclimation in Abies sachalinensis