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Background:  This paper outlines a multiparametric renal MRI acquisition and analysis protocol to allow non-invasive assessment of hemodynamics (renal artery blood flow and perfusion), oxygenation (BOLD T 2  * ), and microstructure (diffusion, T 1  mapping).   Methods:  We use our multiparametric renal MRI protocol to provide (1) a comprehensive set of MRI parameters [renal artery and vein blood flow, perfusion, T 1 , T 2  * , diffusion (ADC, D, D * , f p ), and total kidney volume] in a large cohort of healthy participants (127 participants with mean age of 41 ± 19 years) and show the MR field strength (1.5 T vs. 3 T) dependence of T 1  and T 2  *  relaxation times; (2) the repeatability of multiparametric MRI measures in 11 healthy participants; (3) changes in MRI measures in response to hypercapnic and hyperoxic modulations in six healthy participants; and (4) pilot data showing the application of the multiparametric protocol in 11 patients with Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD).   Results:  Baseline measures were in-line with literature values, and as expected, T 1 -values were longer at 3 T compared with 1.5 T, with increased T 1  corticomedullary differentiation at 3 T. Conversely, T 2  *  was longer at 1.5 T. Inter-scan coefficients of variation (CoVs) of T 1  mapping and ADC were very good at <2.9%. Intra class correlations (ICCs) were high for cortex perfusion (0.801), cortex and medulla T 1  (0.848 and 0.997 using SE-EPI), and renal artery flow (0.844). In response to hypercapnia, a decrease in cortex T 2  *  was observed, whilst no significant effect of hyperoxia on T 2  *  was found. In CKD patients, renal artery and vein blood flow, and renal perfusion was lower than for healthy participants. Renal cortex and medulla T 1  was significantly higher in CKD patients compared to healthy participants, with corticomedullary T 1  differentiation reduced in CKD patients compared to healthy participants. No significant difference was found in renal T 2  * .   Conclusions:  Multiparametric MRI is a powerful technique for the assessment of changes in structure, hemodynamics, and oxygenation in a single scan session. This protocol provides the potential to assess the pathophysiological mechanisms in various etiologies of renal disease, and to assess the efficacy of drug treatments.

Multiparametric Renal Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Validation, Interventions, and Alterations in Chronic Kidney Disease