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In metazoans, there is a remarkable diversity of photosensitive structures; their shapes, physiology, optical properties, and development are different. To approach the evolution of photosensitive structures and visual function, cephalopods are particularly interesting organisms due to their most highly centralized nervous system and their camerular eyes which constitute a convergence with those of vertebrates. The eye morphogenesis in numerous metazoans is controlled mainly by a conserved Retinal Determination Gene Network (RDGN) including  pax, six, eya , and  dac  playing also key developmental roles in non-retinal structures and tissues of vertebrates and  Drosophila . Here we have identified and explored the role of  Sof-dac, Sof-six1/2, Sof-eya  in eye morphogenesis, and nervous structures controlling the visual function in  Sepia officinalis . We compare that with the already shown expressions in eye development of  Sof-otx  and  Sof-pax  genes.  Rhodopsin  is the pigment responsible for light sensitivity in metazoan, which correlate to correlate visual function and eye development. We studied  Sof-rhodopsin  expression during retina differentiation. By  in situ  hybridization, we show that (1) all of the RDGN genes, including  Sof-pax6 , are expressed in the eye area during the early developmental stages but they are not expressed in the retina, unlike  Sof-otx , which could have a role in retina differentiation; (2)  Sof-rhodopsin  is expressed in the retina just before vision gets functional, from stage 23 to hatching. Our results evidence a role of  Sof-six1/2, Sof-eya , and  Sof-dac  in eye development. However, the gene network involved in the retinal photoreceptor differentiation remains to be determined. Moreover, for the first time,  Sof-rhodopsin  expression is shown in the embryonic retina of cuttlefish suggesting the evolutionary conservation of the role of  rhodopsin  in visual phototransduction within metazoans. These findings are correlated with the physiological and behavioral observations suggesting that  S. officinalis  is able to react to light stimuli from stage 25 of organogenesis on, as soon as the first retinal pigments appear.

Eye Development in Sepia officinalis Embryo: What the Uncommon Gene Expression Profiles Tell Us about Eye Evolution