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Worldwide, breast cancer is the most important type of cancer in women with regard to incidence and prevalence. Several risk factors interact to increase the probability of breast cancer development. Biological environmental contaminants such as infectious agents play a significant role in tumor development, and helminths have been recognized as cancer enhancers or inducers due to their ability to regulate the host immune response.  Toxocara canis  is a zoonotic and cosmopolite nematode with immuno-regulatory abilities.  T. canis  infection has been related to T helper type-2 cell (Th2 or type 2) and regulatory responses. Type 2 and regulatory immune responses may favor the development of comorbidities that are usually controlled or eliminated through a type 1 response such as cancer. The aim of this study was to determine whether  T. canis  infection alters mammary tumor growth through modulation of the immune response. Infected mice developed larger tumors. Tumor immune cell milieu analysis revealed that infection reduced the proportions of CD8 +  lymphocytes and increased the proportions of F4/80 +  macrophages and CD19 +  B cells. These changes were accompanied by a type 2 local response represented by increased amounts of IL-4 and VEGF and a regulatory microenvironment associated with higher IL-10 levels. Thus, this study demonstrates that  T. canis  infection enhances tumor development and suggests that this is through modulation of the tumor immune microenvironment.

Potential Novel Risk Factor for Breast Cancer: Toxocara canis Infection Increases Tumor Size Due to Modulation of the Tumor Immune Microenvironment