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Vibrio parahaemolyticus  is the leading cause of seafood-borne bacterial poisoning in China and is a threat to human health worldwide. The aim of this study was to assess the antibiotic resistance profiles and distribution of heavy metal resistance of  V. parahaemolyticus  isolates from  Penaeus vannamei  from freshwater farms, seawater farms, and their corresponding markets in Zhejiang, China and to assess the relationship between multidrug resistance (MDR) and multi-heavy metal resistance (MHMR). Of the 360  P. vannamei  samples that we tested, 90 (25.00%) were  V. parahaemolyticus  positive, but the occurrence of pathogenic isolates carrying the toxin genes  tdh  (4.44%) and  trh  (3.33%) was low. None of the tested isolates harbored both the  tdh  and  trh  genes. However, antibiotic resistance profiles varied among different sampling locations, levels of resistance to the antibiotics ampicillin (76.67%) and streptomycin (74.44%) were high overall, and MDR isolates were common (40.00% of all isolates). Heavy metal resistance patterns were similar among the different sampling locations. Overall, the majority of  V. parahaemolyticus  isolates displayed tolerance to Cd 2+  (60.00%), and fewer were resistant to Cu 2+  (40.00%), Zn 2+  (38.89%), Ni 2+  (24.44%), Cr 3+  (14.44%), and Co 2+  (8.89%). In addition, 34.44% (31/90) of isolates tested in this study were found to be MHMR. Using Pearson’s correlation analysis, MDR and MHMR were found to be positively correlated ( P  = 0.004;  R  = 0.759). The 18  V. parahaemolyticus  isolates that were both MDR and MHMR represented 18 sequence types, of which 12 were novel to the PubMLST database, and displayed a high level of genetic diversity, suggesting that dissemination may be affected by mobile genetic elements via horizontal gene transfer. However, a low percentage of class 1 integrons without gene cassettes and no class 2 or 3 integrons were detected in the 18 MDR and MHMR isolates or in the 90  V. parahaemolyticus  isolates overall. Thus, we suggest that future research focus on elucidating the mechanisms that lead to a high prevalence of resistance determinants in  V. parahaemolyticus . The results of this study provide data that will support aquatic animal health management and food safety risk assessments in the aquaculture industry.

frontiers in microbiology

Co-occurrence of Antibiotic and Heavy Metal Resistance and Sequence Type Diversity of Vibrio parahaemolyticus Isolated From Penaeus vannamei at Freshwater Farms, Seawater Farms, and Markets in Zhejiang Province, China