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The  dif /Xer system of site-specific recombination allows resolution of chromosomal dimers during bacterial DNA replication. Recently, it was also shown to be involved in horizontal transfer of a few known Xer-dependent mobile elements. Here, we show that plasmids of various  Acinetobacter  species, including clinically important strains, often contain multiple p dif  sites that are mainly located within their accessory regions. Chromosomes of  Acinetobacter  strains may also contain additional  dif  sites, and their similarity with plasmid p dif  sites is higher than with the main chromosomal site  dif1 . We further identify putative mobile genetic elements containing p dif  sites on both flanks of adaptive genes and analyze their distribution in  Acinetobacter  species. In total, we describe seven mobile elements containing genes with various adaptive functions from permafrost strains of  A. lwoffii  group. All of them are also spread in modern plasmids of different  Acinetobacter  species including  A. baumannii . We could not detect p dif  sites and corresponding mobile elements in closely related bacterial genera, including  Psychrobacter  and  Moraxella . Thus, the widespread distribution of  dif  modules is a characteristic feature of  Acinetobacter  species and may contribute to their high adaptability both in the environment and in the clinic.

Adaptive dif Modules in Permafrost Strains of Acinetobacter lwoffii and Their Distribution and Abundance Among Present Day Acinetobacter Strains