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Lactococcus lactis  is one of the most important micro-organisms in the dairy industry for the fermentation of cheese and buttermilk. Besides the conversion of lactose to lactate it is responsible for product properties such as flavor and texture, which are determined by volatile metabolites, proteolytic activity and exopolysaccharide production. While the species  Lactococcus lactis  consists of the two subspecies  lactis  and  cremoris  their taxonomic position is confused by a group of strains that, despite of a  cremoris  genotype, display a  lactis  phenotype. Here we compared and analyzed the (draft) genomes of 43  L. lactis  strains, of which 19 are of dairy and 24 are of non-dairy origin. Machine-learning algorithms facilitated the identification of orthologous groups of protein sequences (OGs) that are predictors for either the taxonomic position or the source of isolation. This allowed the unambiguous categorization of the genotype/phenotype disparity of ssp.  lactis  and ssp.  cremoris  strains. A detailed analysis of phenotypic properties including plasmid-encoded genes indicates evolutionary changes during niche adaptations. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that dairy isolates evolved from plant isolates. The analysis further suggests that genomes of  cremoris  phenotype strains are so eroded that they are restricted to a dairy environment. Overall the genome comparison of a diverse set of strains allowed the identification of niche and subspecies specific genes. This explains evolutionary relationships and will aid the identification and selection of industrial starter cultures.

Comparative Genome Analysis of Lactococcus lactis Indicates Niche Adaptation and Resolves Genotype/Phenotype Disparity