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Wolbachia  causes the feminization of chromosomally male embryos in several species of crustaceans and insects, including the leafhopper  Zyginidia pullula . In contrast to the relatively well-established ecological aspects of male feminization (e.g., sex ratio distortion and its consequences), the underlying molecular mechanisms remain understudied and unclear. We embarked on an exploratory study to investigate the extent and nature of  Wolbachia 's effect on gene expression pattern in  Z. pullula . We sequenced whole transcriptomes from  Wolbachia -infected and uninfected adults. 18147 loci were assembled  de novo , including homologs of several  Drosophila  sex determination genes. A number of transcripts were flagged as candidate  Wolbachia  sequences. Despite the resemblance of  Wolbachia -infected chromosomal males to uninfected and infected chromosomal females in terms of sexual morphology and behavior, principal component analysis revealed that gene expression patterns did not follow these sexual phenotype categories. The principal components generated by differentially expressed genes specified a strong sex-independent  Wolbachia  effect, followed by a weaker  Wolbachia-sexual  karyotype interaction effect. Approaches to further examine the molecular mechanism of  Wolbachia -host interactions have been suggested based on the presented findings.

Wolbachia is not all about sex: male-feminizing Wolbachia alters the leafhopper Zyginidia pullula transcriptome in a mainly sex-independent manner