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Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) is an environmentally important atmospheric trace gas because it is an effective greenhouse gas and it leads to ozone depletion through photo-chemical nitric oxide (NO) production in the stratosphere. Mitigating its steady increase in atmospheric concentration requires an understanding of the mechanisms that lead to its formation in natural and engineered microbial communities. N 2 O is formed biologically from the oxidation of hydroxylamine (NH 2 OH) or the reduction of nitrite (NO −  2 ) to NO and further to N 2 O. Our review of the biological pathways for N 2 O production shows that apparently all organisms and pathways known to be involved in the catabolic branch of microbial N-cycle have the potential to catalyze the reduction of NO −  2  to NO and the further reduction of NO to N 2 O, while N 2 O formation from NH 2 OH is only performed by ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB). In addition to biological pathways, we review important chemical reactions that can lead to NO and N 2 O formation due to the reactivity of NO −  2 , NH 2 OH, and nitroxyl (HNO). Moreover, biological N 2 O formation is highly dynamic in response to N-imbalance imposed on a system. Thus, understanding NO formation and capturing the dynamics of NO and N 2 O build-up are key to understand mechanisms of N 2 O release. Here, we discuss novel technologies that allow experiments on NO and N 2 O formation at high temporal resolution, namely NO and N 2 O microelectrodes and the dynamic analysis of the isotopic signature of N 2 O with quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy (QCLAS). In addition, we introduce other techniques that use the isotopic composition of N 2 O to distinguish production pathways and findings that were made with emerging molecular techniques in complex environments. Finally, we discuss how a combination of the presented tools might help to address important open questions on pathways and controls of nitrogen flow through complex microbial communities that eventually lead to N 2 O build-up.

frontiers in microbiology

Nitric oxide and nitrous oxide turnover in natural and engineered microbial communities: biological pathways, chemical reactions, and novel technologies