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Covid-19 features a delayed onset of critical illness occurring approximately one week from the beginning of symptoms, which corresponds to the bridging of innate and adaptive immunity. We reasoned that the immune events occurring at the turning point of disease might mark the direction toward pathogenic  versus  protective inflammatory responses. Subjects with either severe (s; PaO2/FiO2 ratio <200) or mild (m; PaO2/FiO2 ratio>300) Covid-19 were enrolled. A range of chemokines and cytokines as well as reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured in plasma. Dendritic and NK cell frequency, monocyte and B-/T-cell phenotype and SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell responses were assessed in PBMC. Twenty mCovid-19 and 20 sCovid-19 individuals were studied. sCovid-19 patients displayed higher non-classical monocytes, plasma chemokines (CXCL8, CXCL9, CXCL10), cytokines (IL-6, IL-10), and ROS  versus  mCovid-19. sCovid-19 also showed significantly increased activated CD38+HLA-DR+ T-lymphocyte, and granzyme-B+/perforin+ pro-cytolytic T-cells. All Covid-19 patients showed SARS-CoV-2 specific-T-cell response with a predominance of Th1 bi- or trifunctional IFN- γ /IL-2/TNF- α -expressing CD4+, while no difference according to disease severity was observed. Severe Covid-19 features heightened circulating IFN-inducible chemokines and activated pro-cytolytic Th1 cell phenotype in the second week of illness, yet SARS-CoV-2-specific responses are similar to that of mild illness. Altogether, our observations suggest Th1 polarization coupled to higher cytolytic profile in sCovid-19 as correlate of disease pathogenesis and as potential targets to be investigated in the roadmap to therapy and vaccine development.

frontiers in immunology

Heightened Circulating Interferon-Inducible Chemokines, and Activated Pro-Cytolytic Th1-Cell Phenotype Features Covid-19 Aggravation in the Second Week of Illness