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Responsiveness to invasive pathogens, clearance via the inflammatory response, and activation of appropriate acquired responses are all coordinated by innate host defenses. Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands are potent immune-modulators with profound effects on the generation of adaptive immune responses. This property is being exploited in TLR-based vaccines and therapeutic agents in chickens. However, for administering the TLR agonist, all previous studies used  in ovo , intra-muscular or intra-venous routes that cannot be performed in usual farming conditions, thus highlighting the need for TLR ligands that display systemic immune effects when given orally ( per os ). Here we have demonstrated that an ulvan extract of  Ulva armoricana  is able to activate avian heterophils and monocytes  in vitro . Using specific inhibitors, we have evidenced that ulvan may be a new ligand for TLR2 and TLR4; and that they regulate heterophil activation in slightly different manner. Moreover, activation of heterophils as well as of monocytes leads to release pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin1-β, interferon α and interferon γ, through pathways that we partly identified. Finally, when given  per os  to animals ulvan induces heterophils and monocytes to be activated  in vivo  thus leading to a transient release of pro-inflammatory cytokines with plasma concentrations returning toward baseline levels at day 3.

Ulvan Activates Chicken Heterophils and Monocytes Through Toll-Like Receptor 2 and Toll-Like Receptor 4