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Climate change is a major evolutionary force triggering thermal adaptation in a broad range of species. While the consequences of global warming are being studied for an increasing number of species, limited attention has been given to the evolutionary dynamics of endosymbionts in response to climate change. Here, we address this question by studying the dynamics of  Wolbachia , a well-studied endosymbiont of  Drosophila melanogaster .  D. melanogaster  populations infected with 13 different  Wolbachia  strains were exposed to novel hot and cold laboratory environments for up to 180 generations. The short-term dynamics suggested a temperature-related fitness difference resulting in the increase of clade V strains in the cold environment only. Our long-term analysis now uncovers that clade V dominates in all replicates after generation 60 irrespective of temperature treatment. We propose that adaptation of the  Drosophila  host to either temperature or  Drosophila  C virus (DCV) infection are the cause of the replicated, temporally non-concordant  Wolbachia  dynamics. Our study provides an interesting case demonstrating that even simple, well-controlled experiments can result in complex, but repeatable evolutionary dynamics, thus providing a cautionary note on too simple interpretations on the impact of climate change.

Long-Term Dynamics Among Wolbachia Strains During Thermal Adaptation of Their Drosophila melanogaster Hosts