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Behavioral adjustment is a key factor that facilitates species’ coexistence with humans in\uda rapidly urbanizing world. Because urban animals often experience reduced predation\udrisk compared to their rural counterparts, and because escape behavior is energetically\udcostly, we expect that urban environments will select for increased tolerance to humans.\udMany studies have supported this expectation by demonstrating that urban birds have\udreduced flight initiation distance (FID = predator-prey distance when escape by the\udprey begins) than rural birds. Here, we advanced this approach and, for the first\udtime, assessed how 32 species of birds, found in 92 paired urban-rural populations,\udalong a 3,900 km latitudinal gradient across Europe, changed their predation risk\udassessment and escape strategy as a function of living in urban areas. We found\udthat urban birds took longer than rural birds to be alerted to human approaches,\udand urban birds tolerated closer human approach than rural birds. While both rural\udand urban populations took longer to become aware of an approaching human as\udlatitude increased, this behavioral change with latitude is more intense in urban birds\ud(for a given unit of latitude, urban birds increased their pre-detection distance more\udthan rural birds). We also found that as mean alert distance was shorter, urban birds\udescaped more quickly from approaching humans, but there was no such a relationship\udin rural populations. Although, both rural and urban populations tended to escape\udmore quickly as latitude increased, urban birds delayed their escape more at low\udlatitudes when compared with rural birds. These results suggest that urban birds in\udEurope live under lower predation risk than their rural counterparts. Furthermore, the patterns found in our study indicate that birds prioritize the reduction of on-going\udmonitoring costs when predation risk is low. We conclude that splitting escape variables\udinto constituent components may provide additional and complementary information on\udthe underlying causes of escape. This new approach is essential for understanding,\udpredicting, and managing wildlife in a rapidly urbanizing world.Peer reviewe

Rural-Urban Differences in Escape Behavior of European Birds across a Latitudinal Gradient