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Physical and biological factors govern com- munity and population features of sandy beach macro- fauna. At the macroscale, species richness decreases from tropical to temperate beaches, and from macrotidal dissipative to microtidal reflective beaches. At the species level, life history traits are highly plastic over latitudinal gradients; large-scale variations in environmental vari- ables modulate intraspecific phenotypic differentiation. At the mesoscale, alongshore and across-shore distribu- tions tend to be unimodal, bell-shaped within a beach, with abundance varying from the central region to the boundaries, even though environmental gradients (wave exposure, salinity) can cause asymmetries. Zona- tion is highly dynamic and not sharply defined. This is attributed to short- (hourly, daily) or medium- (seasonal) term reactions to environmental conditions, passive transport and sorting by the swash (e.g. recruits), active micro-habitat selection (e.g. adults), and intra- and inter- specific interactions. Across-shore distribution may be- come multimodal due to intraspecific segregation by sizes during recruitment. At the microscale (individual neighbourhood or quadrat scale), behavioural factors and intra-/interspecific interactions become more important as density increases. Human induced impacts also gener- ate variability in population demography, structure and dynamics. We identify physical-biological coupling at dif- ferent temporal and spatial scales, emphasizing the role of life history traits in order to assess alternative regula- tory mechanisms and processes. Our synthesis suggests that: (1) biological interactions are more important regu- latory agents than previously thought: in benign dissipa- tive beaches or undisturbed sites, intra- and interspecific competition can be more intense than in reflective beach- es or disturbed sites, where the populations are physi- cally controlled; (2) supralittoral forms are relatively inde- pendent of the swash regime and show no clear response to beach type; (3) marked long-term fluctuations are noticeable in species with planktonic larvae structured as metapopulations, due to environmental disturbances and stochasticity in reproduction and recruitment.

Patterns, processes and regulatory mechanisms in sandy beach macrofauna: a multi-scale analysis