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An empirical-modeling study was carried out to examine the motion behavior of cope- pod nauplii in relation to their potential predation by omnivorous copepods. First, video observations were taken on the encounters of Centropages velificatus, Paracalanus aculeatus, Paracalanus quasi- modo and Temora stylifera nauplii with free-swimming adult females of C. velificatus. By examining each female's behavior, the observed encounters were arranged into 3 categories: (1) quasi-steady, (2) unsteady, and (3) unsteady with body rotation. We found that a wide spectrum of motion behaviors contributes to the generation of hydrodynamic signals. A hydrodynamic model was developed to analyze 4 encounters under the quasi-steady category. The model takes into account the effects of the finite-sized body morphology and the no-slip boundary condition imposed at the surface of the nauplius. Therefore, the model is able to calculate the tip-base velocity differences, as well as the tip-base shear rates over the length of the setae of the A1 (first antennae) of the nauplii, resulting from the flow disturbances generated by a steadily approaching C. velificatus female. When the tip-base shear rates around its A1 setae reached the range of 3.0 to 4.8 s -1 , a C. velificatus nauplius, moving only occasionally, detected the approaching female copepod. By contrast, a P. quasimodo nauplius and a T. stylifera nauplius, both moving continuously by beating their cephalic appendages, did not detect the female, even when the tip-base shear rates reached the range of 5.2 to 6.2 s -1 for the former and 8.4 to 11.4 s -1 for the latter. The modeling results also reveal the cause of the difference in the sensitivity to hydrodynamic signals. Nauplii moving only occasionally have a much weaker noise field (originating from the naupliar self-generated flow) around their A1 setae than those moving their cephalic appendages continuously to achieve a smooth and continuous motion pattern, and therefore are better suited to perceiving nearby predators. This model provides a mechanistic under- standing as to why continuously moving nauplii are preyed upon at a higher rate than those moving intermittently.

Relation of behavior of copepod juveniles to potential predation by omnivorous copepods: an empirical-modeling study