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A formal speciication of an algorithm is a very rich mathematical abstraction. In general, it not only speciies an input-output relation, but also-at some level of abstraction-constrains the states and transitions associated with computing this relation. This paper explores the relationship between a formal speciication of an algorithm and the many diierent w ays in which the associated states and transitions can beembodied in physical objects and agency. It illustrates the application of principles, tools and techniques that have been developed in the Empirical Modelling Project at Warwick and considers how such an approach can be used in conjunction with a formal speciication for exploration and interpretation of a subject area. As a speciic example, we consider how Empirical Modelling can be helpful in gaining an understanding of a formal development of a heapsort algorithm.

Formal Specification from an Observation-Oriented Perspective