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This study involves a survey conducted among Nubian people settled in Nubia, a region of northeastern Africa that provides a habitat for the wild ass (Equus africanus). The aim of the survey, which involves interviewing community members, was to clarify the effects of early donkey training in order to assess the impact of human intervention at the initial stages of the donkey domestication process. The interviews covered the methods of capturing and training wild asses (by imaging) and donkeys, their ages, and the time needed for packing and riding training. Most respondents stated that they would capture wild asses and begin their early training when the animals were 1–1.5 years old, following a period of socialization. The early training, which starts by tying up donkeys in huts, is conducted when they are 1.5 years old, for approximately 2 weeks. However, foals that were reared with their mothers until they were around 1.5 years old are deemed to have mainly completed the early training; they do not need the early training by humans. Address for correspondence: Rikako Kimura 1-1-1, Sakuragaoka, Setagayaku, Tokyo, Japan 156-8502 Telephone: +81-(0)9049558836 Fax: +81-(0)467238727 E-mail: r3kimura@nodai.ac.jp INTRODUCTION Mitochondrial DNA analyses have shown that wild asses made a large genetic contribution to the process of domesticating donkeys (Equus asinus). The breeds of asses involved include the Nubian Wild Ass (E. africanus africanus) and the Somali Wild Ass (E. africanus somaliensis), as well as one extinct species. There were at least two movements of domestication in the historical periods (Beja-Pereira et al. 2004; Kimura et al. 2011). Earlier studies attempted to examine the specific methods and initial actions used in the domestication of Equidae by considering their behavioral ecology (Inazumi 2015; Kimura 2015; Levine 1999; Price 1999). Kimura and Tefera (2018) pointed out the importance of stress control for donkeys during the early training in Ethiopia. Baier and Reed argued that training had no effect on domestication (Herre and Rohrs 1973); however, in the field of ethology, researchers have pointed out the need to clarify the interaction between “environments×behaviors×genes.” It is high time that systems of domestication were reviewed and reconsidered (Jensen 2014). Human-animal intimacy reflects the extent to which animals obey humans. Training is a process that humans intentionally apply on animals to make them obedient (Herre and Rohrs 1973). An accurate understanding of age, method, and continuity are considered key to clarifying the position of “taming” in the domestication system. This paper summarizes a survey conducted among Nubian people who are settled in Nubia, a region of northeastern Africa that provides a habitat for wild asses (IUCN 2015). As agricultural and livestock farmers since 5000 BC, the Nubian people have continued to raise and train donkeys. This survey interview focused on communities that inherited a traditional donkey culture, gathering information about actual methods, animal ages, training periods, and tools, as well as the effects of early training and the recognition of training. Ethology and ecological anthropology perspectives were used to review the methods and types of human intervention at the initial stage of donkey domestication.

The Role of Training in the Domestication Process—Traditional Nubian Methods and Ideas about Training Donkeys