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iv INTRODUCTION  1 FRAZIL ICE AND ANCHOR ICE FORMATION  2 PREVIOUS STUDIES  6 FIELD OBSERVATIONS  8 LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS  12 Methods  12 Making Frazil and Anchor Ice  12 Flume Sediment 15 Measuring Sediment Concentrations  17 Results  17 Formation and Characteristics of Frazil and Anchor Ice  19 Freshwater  19 Saltwater  22 Interaction of Frazil and Anchor Ice with Sediment  22 Interaction with Suspended Sediment  22 Interaction with Bed Sediment  25 Mineral Specimens, Frazil Ice, and Anchor Ice  31 Special Runs  31 Cooling through the Flume Floor  31 Addition of Dry Ice to Supercooled Water  32 Addition of Chilled Sand to Supercooled Water  32 Bubbling Cold Air into the Flume  32 DISCUSSION  33 Comparison of Fraziland Anchor-Ice Formation in Fresh and Salt Water  33 Frazil Ice, Anchor Ice, and Sediment Transport 34 Observations of Anchor Ice  38 CONCLUSIONS  41 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 44 REFERENCES CITED  45

Flume studies and field observations of the interaction of frazil ice and anchor ice with sediments