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This article provides a detailed method for analyzing smoothness in the seams between musical modules in video games. Video game music is comprised of distinct modules that are triggered during gameplay to yield the real-time soundtracks that accompany players’ diverse experiences with a given game. Smoothness —a quality in which two convergent musical modules fit well together—as well as the opposite quality, disjunction, are integral products of modularity, and each quality can significantly contribute to a game. This article first highlights some modular music structures that are common in video games, and outlines the importance of smoothness and disjunction in video game music. Drawing from sources in the music theory, music perception, and video game music literature (including both scholarship and practical composition guides), this article then introduces a method for analyzing smoothness at modular seams through a particular focus on the musical aspects of meter, timbre, pitch, volume, and abruptness. The method allows for a comprehensive examination of smoothness in both sequential and simultaneous situations, and it includes a probabilistic approach so that an analyst can treat all of the many possible seams that might arise from a single modular system. Select analytical examples from The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker and Portal 2 provide a sampling of the various interpretive gains available through this method. Volume 25, Number 3, October 2019 Copyright © 2019 Society for Music Theory [1] Although video game music has attracted significant scholarly attention in recent years, methods specifically designed for analyzing video game music are as yet relatively sparse.(1) This scarcity of analytical methods is due not only to the newness of the field of video game music studies, but also to the many opaque and slippery aspects of this music. Among other challenging aspects, video game music’s source material is typically encoded, and notated scores often do not exist; moreover, because video games are interactive, their sonic output is flexible rather than fixed (Summers 2016a). The issue of interactivity is particularly crucial at this early stage in the field’s development, and it raises a pressing analytical question: in short, how do we analyze music that is interactive, flexible, and dependent on a player’s individualized actions?(2) [2] The analysts who have thus far approached game music’s interactivity and flexibility have done so in a variety of ways. Tim Summers, for example, has emphasized the importance of “analytical play” as a critical method of inquiry into a game’s music, and has demonstrated a method drawn from diagrammatic film music analysis for representing game music’s various interactive cues; Summers’ diagrams incorporate descriptions of the music’s content and interactive behavior along with interpretation of this music in the context of the game (Summers 2016a). In the course of examining certain video games through the lens of the music game genre, Steven Reale has raised the possibility that some games contain an “intended composition” or “ideal musical object,” which a player may realize through gameplay; one might, for instance, analyze a game’s musical methods of providing feedback to players regarding their success or failure in realizing such an ideal object (Reale 2014). Elsewhere, I have promoted analytical attention to the separate components—modules—within video game soundtracks, along with the various ways in which these modules may sound together when triggered during interactive gameplay; I have also suggested that qualities of smoothness and disjunction in the seams between musical modules may serve as a productive analytical focus, and I have broadly examined these qualities in the course of analyzing music from select games (Medina-Gray 2014, 2016, 2017). While modularity and smoothness are closely entwined with issues of interactivity and flexibility in video game music, a rigorous and detailed method for analyzing smoothness at the many and varied seams between musical modules is as yet missing from the published literature. This article provides such a method, thereby laying one path by which analysts can approach video game music with its interactive and flexible qualities at the fore. [3] In this article, I first illustrate some common modular structures in video game music through examples from the game The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker (hereafter “Wind Waker”), and I highlight the importance of smoothness (and disjunction) as an aesthetic and functional aspect of video game music. Next, I outline a detailed method for analyzing smoothness in the seams between sequential and simultaneous modules by focusing on meter, timbre, pitch, volume, and abruptness. The method allows, first, analysis of an individual sequential seam or an individual moment in a simultaneous seam, and second, analysis of all possible seams that might result from a given modular system. (I have found the music21 toolkit to be helpful in conducting this method’s lengthier calculations.(3)) Analyses of the earlier examples from Wind Waker serve as initial illustrations of the method. To close the article, I analyze two additional examples; these final two case studies demonstrate several ways in which close analysis of modular smoothness can deepen and inflect our understanding of games. An Introduction to Modular Structure and Smoothness [4] At a basic level, the music in video games is modular: distinct musical modules are stored in a game’s code along with rules for how those modules can be triggered and modified during gameplay. Following the programmed rules and responding to a player’s actions, the computer (that is, game console, personal computer, etc.) assembles the modules in real time—stringing them together and layering them on top of each other—into a soundtrack that accompanies a player’s individualized experience with the game (Medina-Gray 2016). Modularity, in short, allows game music to be dynamic, to change along with a game’s similarly flexible visuals and events, so that just as each player’s playthrough of a game is unique, no two real-time soundtracks for a given game will be the same. In other words, as with any indeterminate music, a single sounding result of a game’s modular music system is just one among other (sometimes many other) possible realizations of the same system.(4) [5] For instance, Example 1 maps out a small selection of musical modules and their corresponding triggers in Wind Waker (click on a module to bring up its transcribed musical score) that will serve as raw material for the bulk of this article’s analyses. Each of these modules is defined by the music’s behavior during gameplay—for example, if, without any other input, particular music plays and then returns to its beginning and repeats the same material exactly, that music makes up a looping module. Before I provide the larger context for the game and gameplay of which this music is a part (a critical consideration for any eventual multimedia analysis), and before I explain the details of the modular structure that Example 1 represents, consider first how even a small portion of this example raises analytical challenges. Video Example 1 shows two separate clips of recorded gameplay during which the music shifts from the stacked “Ocean” modules to the “Outset Island” module. (In this and other videos in this article, the recorded gameplay appears on the left-hand side of the window, and annotation illustrating the modules and their triggers as they occur appears on the right.) Although both gameplay clips in Video Example 1 involve the same modules, the timing for the switch between modules depends on an individual player’s actions, and so the precise seam between the modules—the precise musical content—in these two clips is quite different. In both clips, “Outset Island” enters with bass instruments that bounce among D and A pitches, but in Clip A this module begins after the “Ocean” modules execute a functional predominant–dominant progression in the key of D major (m. 16 in the “Ocean” score), while in Clip B the “Ocean” modules are in the process of an extended VI (B major) harmony (m. 71) when “Outset Island” enters. Both clips represent equally valid realizations of this modular music system, and both soundtracks are relevant at least for that individual player’s experience during those moments of gameplay. A full analysis of this modular music system should thus equally account for both of these realizations, along with all other possible realizations of the system. This challenge to incorporate a wide purview in analysis of modular game music forms a core charge for the work I do here. Another challenge lies in the question of what musical content to examine when analyzing multiple modules, and how to examine that content. I highlighted harmonic content in the descriptions above because tonal harmony is a familiar music-theoretical focus, but many other aspects of this music bear consideration as well; whatever analytical focus we choose should be relevant to video game music and the questions we want to ask of it. [6] With its diverse and detailed—but not overly convoluted—modular music structures, Wind Waker provides ample material with which to demonstrate some common modular structures in video game music, as well as to illustrate this article’s main analytical questions and method. Wind Waker is a highly acclaimed entry in the long-running Legend of Zelda series. This game was developed by Nintendo—with music composed by Kenta Nagata, Hajime Wakai, Toru Minegishi, and Koji Kondo—and was released on the Nintendo GameCube console in 2002.(5) In Wind Waker, as in other Legend of Zelda games, players play as the young hero Link on a quest to save the world. Video Example 2 shows a sample of recorded gameplay from the middle portion of the game, where players are encouraged

Analyzing Modular Smoothness in Video Game Music