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After twenty years of published analyses on rap lyrics and flow, a divide between music-oriented and literature-oriented writing remains. It is only slightly hyperbolic to suggest that the former analyzes rap music as music without text while the la er analyzes it as text without music. This article begins bridging that divide by relating details of Kendrick Lamar’s rhythmic delivery to the meaning of his lyrics, focusing on the second verse of “Momma” from To Pimp a Bu erfly (2015). In particular, I present methods for measuring and visualizing the alignment of syllable onsets (i.e., the flow) with events in the accompanying instrumental streams (i.e., the beat). Subsequently, in examining three lines of the verse, I document an analogy between flow-beat alignment and topics of vitality, moral rightness, and knowledge in the lyrics. In demonstrating one way in which rhythmic delivery can affirm the expressive meaning of lyrics, I hope to provide tools that enable hip hop scholars interested in rhythm, rhyme, and meaning to sometimes talk to each other rather than past each other. Volume 25, Number 1, May 2019 Copyright © 2019 Society for Music Theory 1. Revisiting text-music relationships in rap delivery through “speech-rhythmic” vs. “music-rhythmic” flow [1.1] In his 2008 article in Music Theory Online, Kyle Adams notes that existing methods for analyzing texted (classical) music are inapt for rap music. In most of the classical repertoire, a composer sets a preexisting text to music, and this invites analysts to investigate how the meaning of that preexisting text maps onto the meaning of the newly composed music. In rap music, according to Adams, the composition of the music (i.e., “the beat,” created by a deejay or producer) often precedes the composition of the text (i.e., “the flow,” created by an emcee), thereby undermining the mapping of meaning from music to text. Furthermore, Adams cites several examples of rapped lyrics whose meaning is unclear, undermining any a empt to connect their meaning to the meaning of the music: Without passing judgment, one can say that the literal meaning of [the lyrics of A Tribe Called Quest’s “Scenario”] is difficult to discern. Though obviously intended to be humorous, this verse has neither an overarching theme, nor an identifiable plot, nor a systematic and consistent use of imagery. (2008, [4]) Since, in his view, the music often precedes the text, and since the text’s meaning may be “difficult to discern,” Adams suggests that the analyst ought to look at how the rhythm of the rapping voice responds to aspects of the instrumental streams, not how that rhythm interacts with the meaning of the text. Other scholars have provided more nuance to the process of rap composition as an iterative collaboration between an emcee and a producer, one in which the musical content of a track both suggests aspects of the rapper’s flow and responds to it (Williams 2009, [4]; Manabe 2009, 309).(1) But even if the process is more complex than Adams recognizes, his critique of the traditional approach to text/music relations stands: that approach could be applied to rap music appropriately if and only if the text of the lyrics precedes all the features of the music (including the features of the rapper’s voice). This seems unlikely in most cases. [1.2] Adams goes on to demonstrate many rich correspondences between the rhythm of the voice and the rhythm of the text. Subsequently, his call to examine such correspondences has been productive, as evidenced by Oliver Kautny (2015), Nathaniel Condit-Schul (2016), and Ohriner (2016). While I applaud this scholarship, I wish to return in this article to the question Adams set aside: how can the rhythm of the rapping voice support the meaning of rapped lyrics? I address this question not because conventional modes of analysis designed for classical music ought to find application in rap music. Instead, I believe that avoiding the relationship between flow’s rhythm and its text accentuates the divisions between music-oriented and literature-oriented hip hop scholarship. It is only slightly hyperbolic to suggest that the former analyzes rap music as music without text while the la er analyzes it as text without music. [1.3] Although one could examine many features of the rhythm of the rapping voice and relate them to the content of the lyrics, I will focus on the juxtaposition between spans of rapping whose rhythm is speech-like versus those whose rhythm is music-like. I make this distinction primarily by measuring the non-alignment between syllables or rapping and the metric grid of the instrumental streams through techniques introduced in the next section. By “speech-rhythmic” versus “musicrhythmic” flow, I draw on extensive discourse in rap music, among artists, fans, and critics, arguing that syllables of rapping should conform to a metric framework characterized by 16 positions within each measure. I’ll call this framework a “cardinality-16 metric space.” In pedagogical texts on rap, aspiring emcees are instructed to place syllables within this framework. For example, Paul Edwards (2009, 63) states that “unlike the rhythm of a poem, a song’s flow has to be in time with the music—the rhythm of the lyrics must fit with the basic rhythm of the music.” Later, he is even more explicit: This is a very important point to note: a stressed syllable must be said at the same time as each of the four beats in a bar . . . Stressing a syllable on each of the four beats gives the lyrics the same underlying rhythmic pulse as the music and keeps them in rhythm. (71–2; emphases original) [1.4] The emcee stic.man (2005, 32) of Dead Presidents similarly instructs aspiring rappers to absorb the metric grid of the beat before writing lyrics, stating that “when you don’t have the beat first, you are not writing to a known speed or pa ern. This means your choice of words . . . may not fit the beat that you end up choosing for your song.” In the Ice-T documentary Something from Nothing: The Art of Rap, the influential emcee Rakim goes so far as to draw a graph of the metric space in which to compose lyrics: I start off with 16 dots on a paper, bam, bam, bam, bam, bam. My thing was, if four bars was this long, . . . I see like a graph in between them four bars, and within that, I could place so many words and so many syllables . . . and I can take it to the point where there’s no other words you could put in that four bars. (2012, 20:36) [1.5] Rakim’s assertion that no other words would fit is telling: while he is, of course, capable of pronouncing words faster than those of the cardinality-16 space, he considers doing so stylistically inappropriate. There are recognized exceptions to this metric organization, including “triplet flow” that places 12 or 24 syllables in a bar, now commonly associated with rap music originating in Atlanta. But unless a flow consistently features triplets, it is assumed that the artist is a empting to place onsets within a cardinality-16 metric space. And because rap songs maintain tempo, these onsets will arrive at a discrete and steady pace. This is the meaning of “flowing to a beat.” In contrast, the rhythm of speech does not demand or support a metric framework of equally spaced durations. For many years, phoneticians such as Kenneth Pike (1945) and David Abercrombie (1967) asserted that the durations between syllables or groups of syllables were “more or less equal,” but subsequent decades of research have shown the rhythm of speech to be fundamentally non-isochronous.(2) Given the continuous variability of syllable durations in the rhythm of speech and the ideally discrete durations of the rhythm of music, I propose that spans of rapping can be characterized as speech-rhythm or music-rhythmic based on the extent to which they are “quantizable” to a cardinality-16 metric grid. I will measure this “quantizability” in terms of the average distance between a collection of syllables and a cardinality-16 grid.(3) [1.6] In Section 2 of this article, I provide an example of speech-rhythmic vs. music-rhythmic flow and describe how one might establish such a contrast analytically. In Section 3, I draw analogies between the meaning of the lyrics and contrastive flow styles in one verse of rapping, the second verse of Kendrick Lamar’s “Momma” from the 2015 release To Pimp a Bu erfly. Much of the album centers on Lamar’s suspicions that his wealth may be undeserved (“u”), fleeting (“Wesley's Theory”), morally corrupting (“For Sale?”), or alienating (“How Much a Dollar Cost”). “Momma” tries to refute these suspicions by focusing on Lamar's earned skills as an emcee (Verse 1), his fragile expertise (Verse 2), and his connection to ancestors (Verse 3). I will argue that Lamar’s treatment of speech-rhythmic vs. music-rhythmic flows rests on the question of whether mistrust of his success is warranted. Beyond the appropriateness of this particular verse for analysis, Lamar is especially appropriate given his wide-ranging and a ested abilities to use a variety of rhythmic practices.(4) Besides “flowing fast” and “flowing slow,” Lamar, particularly on Bu erfly, flows to beats whose influences range from free jazz to R&B, funk, and hip hop.(5) Furthermore, “Momma” is an especially appropriate track in which to examine contrasts in speechand music-like delivery, as it has underlying instrumental tracks that obscure the placement of the beat. 2. Speech-rhythmic vs. music-rhythmic flow: quantizing “Alright” vs. “Momma” [2.1] To establish this contrast between speech-rhythmic and music-rhythmic flow, consider the delivery of two lines from Bu erfly, one from the beginning of the first verse of “Alright” (0:37–0:41) and another from the middle of the second verse of “Momma” (2:09–2:12). Examples 1 and 2 represent several views of the rhythm of these lines. [NB: Examples and Audio Excerpts share numbers.] Examples 1a and 2a (upper left) show the durations

Lyric, Rhythm, and Non-alignment in the Second Verse of Kendrick Lamar’s “Momma”