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[1] The frequently irregular behavior of dissonance in American folk and popular music, at least in comparison with classical norms, has been problematic for analysts working with this repertoire.(2) Popular styles present a number of dissonance types that cannot be explained by conventional tonal theory and still require examination. This article represents a small step in that direction. Although conventional dissonant passing tones, neighbor tones, and, to a lesser extent, suspensions are common in this repertoire, I do not explore them in any detail here. Instead, this article examines other forms of dissonance treatment that function outside of classical norms. It explores dissonance as it relates to melodic modes, triads with added notes, non-tonic harmonies, and the interactions between them.[2] The primary sources for this study are recordings, and the focus is on those made between the 1920s, when record companies began to record American folk and popular music extensively, and the early 1940s. These years coincide with the dates that the two most authoritative and exhaustive discographies on early blues and country music stop their listings: Dixon, Godrich, and Rye's Blues and Gospel Records, 1890-1943 documents recordings primarily by black musicians, and Tony Russell's Country Music Records: A Discography, 1921-1942 documents recordings primarily by white musicians.(3) Some of the recordings are from the "race record" and "hillbilly record" series of the 20s, 30s, and early 40s-others are non-commercial recordings from the Archive of American Folk Song of the Library of Congress. Three of the later examples in this study (Examples 14, 16, and 17) are transcriptions of recordings made after the time frame outlined above, and represent a tentative step toward applying the theoretical principles explored here to later genres. My principal methodology is a close examination of what Schenkerians term the foreground, but I also discuss ways in which the interaction between mode and harmony influences the large-scale structure of a strophe or other section, and the perception of its tension and resolution. All of the transcriptions are transposed to C for the sake of comparison. Most of the transcriptions represent the verse of a strophic song. Others are transcriptions of verses from songs that are nearly strophic, but that display more melodic variation from verse to verse, and in such cases I indicate the specific verse transcribed.[3] In this repertoire, the three primary harmonies-the major tonic, subdominant, and dominant-are the main building blocks for progressions.(4) Those harmonies alone make up the progressions of many of the most productive blues schemes, the most well-known and productive of which is the standard twelve-bar blues scheme. A blues scheme is a musical framework that musicians view as a sort of public musical resource for generating new songs. All of the songs transcribed in this article are realizations of blues schemes. Table 1 lists the twelve-bar schemes cited, and Table 2 lists the eight-, nine-, and ten-bar schemes cited. Tables 1 and 2 show harmonic progressions for schemes in which the harmonic pattern is primary, but no progressions for schemes in which the melodic structure is primary.Table 1. List of twelve-bar schemes citedTable 2. List of eight-, nine-, and ten-bar schemes citedExample 1. a) Stable note with dropping and hanging thirds; b) tonic triad with dropping and hanging thirds around and ; c) tonic triad with stepwise neighbors around and ; d) functioning as the hanging third to and the upper neighbor to ; e) functioning as the lower neighbor to and the dropping third to[4] Dissonance arises within the melodic mode itself, through the relationship of the mode to the underlying harmony, and through the relationship of the non-tonic harmonies to the tonic. In this repertoire, the tonic triad is most often major. …

Mode, Harmony, and Dissonance Treatment in American Folk and Popular Music, c. 1920–1945