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While the evolution of cooperative behaviors has generated an intense debate among\udevolutionists and animal behaviorists, the proximate mechanisms underlying cooperative\udrelationships have received much less attention. In recent years, it has become clear that an\udunderstanding of proximate causation of cooperation is needed in order to obtain a more\udbalanced and complete picture of the phenomenon. The proximate cause of cooperation refers\udto the immediate situation that triggers behavior, and the role of learning, memory, physiology,\udand neural processes. Since from an evolutionary point of view cooperative relationships are\udmaintained because of the subsequent benefits they bring, there has been the tendency to\uderroneously assume that they are also motivated by their future benefits. This assumption\udwould imply that animals engage in social interactions in order to gain future benefits, or that\udthey are able to remember the services given by another individual in order to offer a service\udin return at a later date. While this “rational” calculation offers a possible explanation, it is\udcurrently unclear whether or not some animal species have these cognitive capacities. Here I\udwill argue that, while complex cognitive mechanisms may be present in some species, less cognitively\uddemanding mechanisms, based on emotions, could be at the basis of the flexibility\udneeded to form complex, enduring cooperative relationships in both human and non-human\udanimals

Proximate mechanisms underlying cooperation in carnivores