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During the latter decades of the 20th century as products became increasingly complex it became necessary to formalise engineering and product design methods, reputed exponents of which include Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz, L. Bruce Archer, Nigel Cross and Stuart Pugh. Pugh’s ‘total design’ method is described as a linear activity in that product manufacture and use are considered but not what happens to the product at the end of life. This chapter discusses the need to update the ‘total design’ model by comparing the product life cycle and that of the automobile in particular with systems and cycles in the natural world.

wit transactions on state-of-the-art in science and engineering

Living systems, ‘total design’ and the evolution of the automobile: the significance and application of holistic design methods in automotive design, manufacture and operation